Microbial Fuel Cell - A Bioelectrochemical System that Converts Waste to Watts

Foreword

Preface

Contents

Acronyms

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Basic Principles of Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)

1.3 Components of MFC

1.3.1 Anode Materials

1.3.2 Types of Separators/Membranes

1.3.3 Cathode Materials

1.4 MFC Architecture

1.5 MFC Performance Indicators

1.6 Modelling of Reaction and Transport Processes in MFCs

1.7 Applications of MFCs

1.7.1 Bioremediation and Wastewater Treatment

1.7.2 Removal and Recovery of Heavy Metals

1.7.3 Constructed Wasteland Management

1.7.4 Water Desalination

1.7.5 Biophotovoltaics

1.7.6 Biosensors

1.7.7 MFC as Alternate Power Tool

1.7.8 Biochemical Production via Microbial Electrosynthesis

1.8 Scaling Up of MFC

1.9 Challenges in MFC and Future Scope

1.10 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Principles of Microbial Fuel Cell for the Power Generation

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Fuel Cell and Brief Development of MFC

2.2 Basic Principle of MFC

2.2.1 Advantages of MFC over Other Bioenergy Processes

2.3 Power Generation and Evaluation of MFC Performance

2.3.1 Classifications of MFCs

2.3.2 Potential Losses in MFC

2.3.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of MFC

2.3.4 Performance Evaluation for MFC

2.3.5 Coulombic Efficiency and Energy Efficiency

2.4 Microbes as Catalyst in MFC and Their Various Mode of Exo-cellular Electron Transfer to Electrode

2.4.1 Electron Transfer by C-type Cytochromes

2.4.2 Microbial Nanowire

2.4.3 Electron Shuttles or Mediators

2.5 MFC for Wastewater Treatment

2.6 Other Applications of MFC

2.6.1 MFC as Toxic Sensor and BOD Biosensor

2.6.2 Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles

2.6.3 Other Bioelectrochemical System Adapted from MFC

2.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Characteristics of Microbes Involved in Microbial Fuel Cell

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Electrocigens - Nature and Source

3.2.1 Natural Sources for EAB

3.2.2 Artificial Sources for EAB

3.3 Growth Conditions of EAB

3.3.1 pH

3.3.2 Temperature

3.3.3 Substrate

3.3.4 Electrode Material and Membranes

3.4 Bioelectrogenesis and Mechanisms of Exocellular Electron Transfer (EET)

3.4.1 Mediated Electron Transfer (MET)

3.4.2 Direct Electron Transfer (DET)

3.5 Factors Affecting EAB Performance in MFC

3.5.1 Mass Transfer Limitations

3.5.2 Bacterial Metabolism Losses

3.5.3 Activation Losses

3.5.4 Electron-Quenching Reactions

3.6 Strategies for Studying EAB

3.6.1 Microbiological Methods

3.6.2 Molecular Methods

3.6.3 Electrochemical Methods

3.7 Microbial Composition of Biocathode

3.8 Challenges and Future Prospects

3.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Microbial Ecology of Anodic Biofilms: From Species Selection to Microbial Interactions

4.1 Introduction to Electroactive Biofilms

4.2 Breakdown of Fermentation Mix End Products

4.2.1 Acetate

4.2.2 Formate

4.2.3 Lactate

4.2.4 Propionate

4.2.5 Butyrate

4.2.6 Ethanol

4.3 Breakdown of Glucose

4.3.1 Direct Conversion of Glucose to Current

4.3.2 Glucose Fermentation to Mixed End Products

4.3.2.1 Glucose to Acetate and Hydrogen

4.3.2.2 Glucose to Lactate

4.3.2.3 Glucose to Propionate

4.3.2.4 Glucose to Succinate, Acetate and Formate

4.3.2.5 Glucose to Butyrate

4.3.2.6 Glucose to Ethanol

4.3.2.7 Pyruvate to Mixed End Products

4.3.2.8 Lactate to Mixed End Products

4.3.3 Mixed End Products to Current

4.4 Microbial Communities for Wastewater Substrates Degradation

4.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Anodic Electron Transfer Mechanism in Bioelectrochemical Systems

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Electron Transfer Mechanisms

5.2.1 Direct Electron Transfer

5.2.2 Mediated Electron Transfer

5.2.2.1 MET via Exogenous Mediators

5.2.2.2 MET via Endogenous Mediators

5.3 Interspecies Electron Transfer Through Conductive Minerals

5.4 Factors Influencing Electron Transfer Mechanism

5.4.1 Biofilm Integrity

5.4.2 Electrodes Structure

5.4.3 Catalyzed Electrodes

5.4.4 Electrolyte and Electron Carriers

5.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 6: Development of Suitable Anode Materials for Microbial Fuel Cells

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Essential Requirements of Anode Materials

6.2.1 Surface Area and Porosity

6.2.2 Fouling and Poisoning

6.2.3 Electronic Conductivity

6.2.4 Biocompatibility

6.2.5 Stability and Long Durability

6.2.6 Electrode Cost and Availability

6.3 Anode Materials Employed in MFCs

6.3.1 Carbonaceous Electrodes

6.3.1.1 Types of Carbonaceous Anode

6.3.1.2 Plane or 2D Carbonaceous Anodes

6.3.1.3 3D Carbonaceous Anodes

6.3.2 Non-carbonaceous Electrodes

6.3.2.1 Noble Metal Materials

6.3.2.2 Non-noble Metal Materials

6.3.2.3 3D and Composites Metal-Based Electrodes

6.4 Surface Treatment

6.4.1 Heat Treatment

6.4.1.1 Treatment of Anode Materials

6.4.1.2 Chemical Treatment

Ammonia/Acid Treatment

Electrochemical Oxidation

6.4.2 Advanced Nanostructure Modification of Anodes

6.4.2.1 Modification of Anodes by Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) and Its Composites

6.4.2.2 Modification of Anodes by Graphene and Its Composites

6.4.2.3 Modification of Anodes by Conductive Polymer and Its Composites

6.5 Challenge and Outlook

6.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Performances of Separator and Membraneless Microbial Fuel Cell

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Parameters Used in MFC Performance

7.2.1 Proton Transport Mechanism in a PEM

7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Separator and Separatorless MFC

7.4 Type of Separators and Their Performance in MFC

7.4.1 Ion-Exchange Membranes

7.4.2 Salt Bridge

7.4.3 Porous Membrane

7.4.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Composite Membranes

7.5 Separatorless MFC

7.6 Current Status

7.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Role of Cathode Catalyst in Microbial Fuel Cell

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Non-oxygen Terminal Electron Acceptors

8.3 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) at Cathode: Fundamentals

8.3.1 Evaluation of ORR Catalysts: Figure of Merits

8.4 Cathode Catalysts

8.4.1 Pt and Pt-based ORR Catalysts

8.4.2 Pt-free ORR Catalysts in MFC

8.4.2.1 Metals and Multimetallics

8.4.2.2 Metal Oxide-Based ORR Catalysts

8.4.2.3 Metal Macrocycles-Based ORR Catalysts

8.4.2.4 Carbon-Based ORR Catalysts

8.4.2.5 Metal Carbides as ORR Catalysts

8.4.2.6 Electronically Conductive Polymer Catalysts

8.4.2.7 Biocatalysts for Cathodic Reduction

8.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: Role of Biocathodes in Bioelectrochemical Systems

9.1 Introduction

9.2 BES Technology Utilizing Biocathodes

9.3 Electron Acceptors and Microorganisms

9.4 Biocathode Materials

9.4.1 General Material Characteristics

9.4.1.1 Biocompatibility and Surface Roughness

9.4.1.2 Surface Area and Porosity

9.4.1.3 Conductivity

9.4.1.4 Hydrophobicity

9.5 Biofilm Formation

9.5.1 Biofilm Architecture

9.6 Electron Transfer

9.6.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacterial Electron Transport Chains

9.6.2 Electrode-Microbe Electron Transfer Mechanisms

9.6.2.1 Direct Electron Transfer (DET)

9.6.2.2 Indirect Electron Transfer (IDET)

9.6.2.3 Proteins Affiliated with Extracellular Electron Transfer

9.7 Microbial Characterization Methods

9.7.1 Biofilm Characterization

9.7.2 Microorganism Detection

9.7.3 Composition and Characterization of Microbial Communities

9.7.4 Analysis of Functional Genes and Activity of Microbes

9.7.5 Polyphasic Taxonomical Approach

9.7.6 Microscopic Methods

9.7.7 Spectroscopic Methods

9.7.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging

9.7.9 Flow Cytometry

9.8 Conclusions

References

Chapter 10: Physicochemical Parameters Governing Microbial Fuel Cell Performance

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Anode Electrode for MFC

10.2.1 Plain Anode Materials

10.2.2 Surface Modifications of Anode Electrode

10.3 Cathode Electrode

10.3.1 Cathode Electrode with Catalysts

10.3.2 Cathode Electrode Without Catalysts

10.4 Membranes/Separators Tested in MFC

10.4.1 Ion Exchange Membrane

10.4.2 Size Selective Separators

10.5 Reactor Configurations

10.6 Effect of Temperature on MFC Performance

10.7 Electrolyte pH in Governing MFC Performances

10.8 Electrolyte Conductivity

10.9 Oxidants in an MFC Cathode

10.10 Substrates (Fuels) in the MFC Anode Chamber

10.11 Conclusions

References

Chapter 11: Reactor Design for Bioelectrochemical Systems

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Components of BES

11.2.1 Anode Materials

11.2.1.1 Nanostructured Carbon-Based Electrodes

11.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes

11.2.1.3 Graphene

11.2.1.4 Conductive Polymers

11.2.1.5 Metal Nanoparticles

11.2.2 Cathode Materials

11.2.2.1 Chemical Cathodes

11.2.2.2 Biocathodes

11.2.3 Membranes

11.2.3.1 Cation Exchange Membranes

11.2.3.2 Anion Exchange Membranes

11.3 Bioelectrochemical Cell Designs

11.3.1 Dual Chamber

11.3.2 Single Chamber

11.3.3 Stack Designs

11.4 Future Perspectives and Conclusions

References

Chapter 12: Microfluidic Microbial Fuel Cell: On-chip Automated and Robust Method to Generate Energy

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Microfluidics - Basic Principles Pertaining to MFC

12.2.1 Summary of Principles

12.2.2 Amenability to Integration

12.2.3 Principle to Develop Membraneless MMFC

12.3 Membraned Microfluidic MFC (M+MMFC)

12.3.1 Diverse Membraned Microfluidic MFC (M+MMFC)

12.3.1.1 Conventional Photolithography (Chen et al. 2011; Dvila et al. 2011; Mu et al. 2006)

12.3.1.2 Soft Lithography (Choi and Chae 2013; Li et al. 2011; Qian et al. 2009, 2011; Siu and Chiao 2008)

12.3.1.3 Paper-Based Devices (Choi et al. 2015; Fraiwan and Choi 2014; Fraiwan et al. 2013; Hashemi et al. 2016)

12.3.1.4 Laser Micromachining

12.3.2 Challenges in Conventional Microfluidic MFCs (M+MMFC)

12.3.2.1 High Internal Resistance

12.3.2.2 Low Energy Density Output

12.3.2.3 Oxygen Penetration

12.4 Membraneless Microfluidic MFC (M-MMFC)

12.4.1 Key Membraneless Microfluidic MFC (M-MMFC) and Their Comparison

12.4.2 Salient Features of M-MMFC

12.4.2.1 Membraneless

12.4.2.2 Higher Output Power Density/Current Density

12.4.2.3 Relatively Shorter Response Time

12.4.3 Challenges in M-MMFC

12.4.3.1 Ensuring the Required Flow Environment

12.4.3.2 Smart Integration of Various Components of M-MMFC

12.5 Future Opportunities

12.5.1 Electricity Generation

12.5.2 In Vivo Operation

12.5.3 Input Power Requirement

12.5.4 Other Applications

12.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Diagnostic Tools for the Assessment of MFC

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Reporting Data Using Typical Performance Indicators

13.2.1 Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)

13.2.2 Half-Cell Potential

13.2.3 Current Density

13.2.4 Power Density

13.2.5 Columbic Efficiency

13.2.5.1 Batch or Fed-Batch Mode of Operation

13.2.5.2 Continuous Mode of Operation

13.2.6 Energy Efficiency

13.3 Performance Evaluation via Electro-chemical Tools

13.3.1 Polarization

13.3.2 Current Interruption (CI)

13.3.3 Voltammetry Techniques

13.3.3.1 Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV)

13.3.3.2 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)

13.3.3.3 Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV)

13.3.3.4 Chronoamperometry (CA)

13.3.4 Butler-Volmer Analysis and Tafel Plots

13.3.5 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) Analysis

13.4 Material Characterization Methods

13.4.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

13.4.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

13.4.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

13.4.4 BET Surface Area Measurements

13.4.5 Other Methods

13.5 Techniques for Microbial Community Analysis

13.5.1 DGGE

13.5.2 ARDRA

13.5.3 Pyrosequencing

13.5.4 Other Molecular Techniques

13.6 Waste and Wastewater Analysis

13.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 14: Modelling of Reaction and Transport in Microbial Fuel Cells

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Principle of an MFC

14.3 Classification of the Models

14.4 Overall Models

14.5 Models Pertaining to Anode-Bacterial Interactions

14.5.1 Background Current and Modelling of Endogenous Metabolism

14.6 Models Pertaining to Membrane/Separator

14.7 Models Pertaining to Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) Kinetics at Cathode

14.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 15: Bioremediation and Power Generation from Organic Wastes Using Microbial Fuel Cell

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Basic Principles of Power Generation from Organic Wastes in MFC

15.3 Electrode Mechanisms

15.3.1 Reactions at Anode

15.3.2 Reactions at Cathode

15.4 MFC Configurations

15.5 Microbial Remediation Using MFC-Based Technologies

15.5.1 MFC-Assisted Biodegradation of Azo Dyes

15.5.2 Bioremediation of Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives

15.5.3 Removal of Heavy Metals

15.5.4 Other Pollutants

15.6 Organic Wastes and Wastewater as Potential Feedstocks for MFCs

15.6.1 Solid Residual Wastes

15.6.2 Organic Wastewater

15.7 Challenges

15.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 16: Removal and Recovery of Metals by Using Bio-electrochemical System

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Principles of Bioelectrochemical Systems (BESs)

16.3 Metals in the Environment

16.4 Bio-electrochemical Metal Removal and Recovery

16.4.1 Arsenic

16.4.2 Cadmium (Cd)

16.4.3 Chromium (Cr)

16.4.4 Cobalt (Co)

16.4.5 Copper (Cu)

16.4.6 Mercury (Hg)

16.4.7 Gold (Au)

16.4.8 Nickel (Ni)

16.4.9 Selenium (Se)

16.4.10 Silver (Ag)

16.4.11 Vanadium (V)

16.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 17: Sediment Microbial Fuel Cell and Constructed Wetland Assisted with It: Challenges and Future Prospects

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Fundamentals of SMFCs and CW-MFCs

17.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of SMFCs and CW-MFCs

17.3.1 Electrode Materials

17.3.2 Electrode Spacing and External Resistance

17.3.3 Effect of Catalysts and Mediators

17.3.4 Effect of pH, Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature

17.3.5 Plants

17.3.6 Operating Conditions

17.4 Electricity Generation as a Function of Wastewater Treatment

17.5 Scaling Up of SMFCs and Operating Wireless Sensors

17.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 18: Fundamentals of Microbial Desalination Cell

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Ion Exchange Membrane (IEM) Based MDC

18.2.1 Reactor Design

18.2.2 Junction Potential and Water Transport

18.3 MDC Performance

18.3.1 Salinity Removal

18.3.2 Maximum Current vs. Maximum Power

18.3.3 Current Efficiency

18.3.4 Coulombic Efficiency

18.3.5 COD Removal

18.3.6 Effects of Electrolyte pH

18.3.7 Salinity Effects on Exoelectrogenic Bacteria

18.3.8 Cathode Reactions: O2 Reduction vs. H2 Evolution

18.4 Types of Microbial Desalination Cells (MDCs)

18.4.1 Osmotic MDCs

18.4.2 Bipolar Membrane MDCs

18.4.3 Capacitive Microbial Desalination Cell

18.5 Challenges and Perspective

18.5.1 Control of pH

18.5.2 Improving Performance of Stacked MDCs

18.5.3 IEM Integrity Under High Microbial Activity

18.5.4 Water Safety

18.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 19: Biophotovoltaics: Conversion of Light Energy to Bioelectricity Through Photosynthetic Microbial Fuel Cell Technolo...

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Mechanism of Development of Potential Gradient in Biological System

19.3 Light Harvesting Technologies for Bioelectricity Generation

19.3.1 Chemical Based

19.3.2 Biological Based

19.3.2.1 Anoxygenic Photosynthesis at Anode

19.3.2.2 Photosynthetic at Anode with Artificial Mediators Biological Photovoltaics

19.3.2.3 Oxygenic Photosynthesis at Anode

19.3.2.4 Oxygenic Photosynthesis at Cathode

19.3.2.5 Plant MFC (Synergism Between Mixed Heterotrophic Bacteria and Plant)

19.3.3 Ecological Engineered System (EES): MFC to Wetland System

19.3.4 Light Harvesting Proteins for Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemical Devices

19.4 Applications

19.4.1 Wastewater Treatment

19.4.2 Powering Underwater Monitoring Devices

19.4.3 BOD Sensing

19.4.4 Biohydrogen Production in PhFC

19.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 20: Application of Microbial Fuel Cell as a Biosensor

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Microbial Biosensors

20.3 Principle of MFC as a Biosensor

20.4 Advantages of MFC as a Sensor

20.5 BOD and Its Importance

20.6 Methods of Assessing BOD

20.7 Application of MFC as a BOD Sensor

20.7.1 MFC as a BOD Biosensor-State of Art

20.7.2 Challenges of MFC-Based BOD Biosensors

20.8 Upcoming Applications of MFC in the Field of Sensing

20.8.1 Screening of Electroactive Microbes

20.8.2 Toxicity Sensing

20.8.3 VFA Sensing

20.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 21: Microbial Fuel Cell as Alternate Power Tool: Potential and Challenges

21.1 Introduction

21.2 MFCs as Alternative Power Sources

21.2.1 MFCs Powering Remote Sensors

21.2.2 MFCs for Robotics

21.2.3 Paper-Based MFC Devices

21.2.4 Pee Power Urinal Field Trials

21.2.5 MFCs Powering Low Power Density Devices

21.3 Factors Constraining Energy Output of MFCs

21.4 Energy Harvest in MFC

21.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 22: Microbially Mediated Electrosynthesis Processes

22.1 Microbial Electrosynthesis for Bioelectrochemical Processes

22.2 Factors Affecting the Performance of BES

22.2.1 Electrochemical Parameters

22.2.1.1 Activation Polarization

22.2.1.2 Ohmic Polarization

22.2.1.3 Voltage Reversal

22.2.1.4 Applied Potential

22.2.2 Physicochemical Parameters

22.2.2.1 Substrate Availability

22.2.2.2 Salinity

22.2.2.3 Concentration Polarization

22.2.3 Operational Parameters

22.2.3.1 Mediators

22.2.3.2 pH Splitting

22.2.3.3 Other Operational Consideration

22.2.4 Engineering Parameters

22.2.4.1 Reactor Configuration

22.2.4.2 Internal Currents

22.2.4.3 Membranes

22.2.4.4 State-of-the-Art Electrode Materials

22.2.4.5 Tubings and Compartments

22.2.5 Microbial Parameters

22.2.6 Economic Parameters

22.3 Biocathode Development

22.4 Advantages and Application of Bioelectrochemical Conversions

22.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 23: Recent Progress Towards Scaling Up of MFCs

23.1 Genesis and Advancement in MFC Research

23.2 Bottleneck in MFC Research

23.3 Scaling Up of MFC

23.4 Hybrid Approach of MFC for Wastewater Treatment

23.5 Life Cycle Assessment of MFC

23.6 Current Challenges and Potential Opportunities

23.7 MFC: Outlook and Future Perspectives

23.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 24: Scaling Up of MFCs: Challenges and Case Studies

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Limitations in Large Scale Applicationof MFCs

24.3 Electrochemical Limitations: Design

24.3.1 Electrodes

24.3.2 Reactor Vessel Design

24.3.3 Electrical Connectivity

24.4 Operational Limitations

24.4.1 Start-Up

24.4.2 Electrolyte

24.4.2.1 Chemical Composition

24.4.2.2 Substrate Loading

24.5 Economic Limitations

24.6 MFCs Toward Commercial Applications: Case Studies

24.6.1 Bioelectro MET

24.6.2 Value from Urine

24.6.3 EcoBots

24.6.4 Pee Power Urinal

24.7 Possible Solutions to Overcomethe Limitations

24.7.1 Electrode Spacing and Specific Surface Area

24.7.2 Electrolyte Flow Dynamics

24.7.3 Minimizing Fabrication Defects

24.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 25: Challenges in Microbial Fuel Cell and Future Scope

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Metabolic Reactions Intricate in Bioelectricity Generation from Exoelectrogens

25.3 MFC Applications

25.4 Factors Governing MFC Performance

25.4.1 Biocatalyst

25.4.2 Substrate

25.4.3 Substrate/COD Concentration

25.4.4 Feed pH

25.5 Bottlenecks of MFC

25.5.1 Polarization Losses

25.5.2 Activation Losses (AL)

25.5.3 Concentration Polarization (CP)

25.5.4 Ohmic Losses (OL)

25.5.5 Microbial Interaction with the Electrode Surface

25.5.6 Choice of Anode Biocatalyst

25.5.7 Proton (H+) Mass Transfer

25.5.8 O2 Reduction by the Cathode

25.5.9 Electron Acceptors Other Than O2

25.6 MFC as a Wastewater Treatment System

25.7 Future Scope

25.8 Conclusion

References

Index